Table 2 Associations of mother-child characteristics, nutrition indicators, and sanitation indicators with stunting risk in urban and rural areas (N = 316)

A. Mother and Child Characteristics

Mother’s age

0.024*

1.21

(1.11–4.52)

0.048*

1.97

(1.0.47–4.56)

0.044*

1.45

(1.08–4.22)

≥ 25 years

141 (73.4)

192 (78.7)

10 (27.0)

27 (73.0)

37 (51.4)

61 (26.6)

168 (73.4)

229 (72.5)

< 25 years

31 (59.6)

52 (21.3)

12 (34.3)

23 (65.7)

35 (48.6)

33 (37.9)

54 (62.1)

87 (27.5)

Mother’s education

0.162

0.98

(0.41–1.43)

0.476

1.18

(0.32–2.72)

0.531

1.33

(0.75–1.72)

≥ Senior high school

77 (63.6)

121 (49.6)

7 (31.8)

15 (68.2)

22 (30.6)

51 (35.7)

92 (64.3)

143 (45.3

< Senior high school

95 (77.2)

123 (50.4)

15 (30.0)

35 (70.0)

50 (69.4)

43 (24.9)

130 (75.1)

173 (54.7)

Mother’s occupation

0.049*

1.74

(1.22–5.66)

0.125

1.24

(0.57–2.16)

0.183

1.27

(0.86–2.86)

Unemployed

156 (76.5)

204 (83.6)

14 (26.9)

38 (73.1)

52 (72.2)

62 (24.2)

194 (75.8)

256 (81.0)

Employed

16 (40.0)

40 (16.4)

8 (40.0)

12 (60,0)

20 (27.8)

32 (53.3)

28 (46.7)

60 (19.0)

Mother’s height

0.014*

3.72

(1.61–4.59)

0.028*

3.67

(1.14–4.89)

0.000*

3.29

(1.34–3.04)

≥150 cm

97 (84.3)

115 (47.1)

5 (14.7)

29 (85.3)

34 (47.2)

23 (15.4)

126 (84.6)

149 (47.2)

<150 cm

75 (58.1)

129 (52.9)

17 (44.7)

21 (55.3)

38 (52.8)

71 (42.5)

96 (57.5)

167 (52.8)

Children’s age

0.045*

1.95

(1.35–4.84)

0.021*

2.86

(1.39–3.15)

0.001*

2.24

(1.15–3.45)

≥24 months

94 (63.9)

147 (60.2)

17 (37.0)

29 (63.0)

46 (63.9)

70 (36.3)

123 (63.7)

193 (61.1)

<24 months

78 (80.4)

97 (39.8)

5 (19.2)

21 (80.8)

26 (36.1)

24 (19.5)

99 (80.5)

123 (38.9)

Birth weight

0.049*

1.75

(1.17–3.72)

0.036*

1.87

(1.17–5.83)

0.051

1.69

(1.14–4.58)

Normal birth weight (≥ 2500 g)

156 (71.6)

218 (89.3)

17 (28.3)

43 (71.7)

60 (83.3)

79 (28.4)

199 (71.6)

278 (88.0)

Low birth weight

(< 2500 g)

16 (61.5)

26 (10.7)

5 (41.7)

7 (58.3)

12 (16.7)

15 (39.5)

23 (60.5)

38 (12.0)

History of Basic Immunization

0.031*

2.13

(1.58–5.73)

0.026*

1.92

(1.49–5.77)

0.046*

1.87

(1.44–5.76)

Complete

144 (76.2)

189 (77.5)

13 (25.5)

38 (74.5)

51 (70.8)

58 (25.6)

169 (74.4)

227 (71.8)

Incomplete

28 (50.9)

55 (22.5)

9 (42.9)

12 (57.1)

21 (29.2)

36 (40.4)

53 (59.6)

89 (28.2)

History of Infectious Diseases

0.026*

2.24

(1.36–4.27)

0.042*

2.15

(1.05–4.22)

0.048*

1.95

(1.36–4.73)

No

121 (73.8)

164 (67.2)

8 (22.2)

28 (77.8)

36 (50.0)

51 (25.5)

149 (74.5)

200 (63.3)

Yes

51 (63.8)

80 (32.8)

14 (38.9)

22 (61.1)

36 (50.0)

43 (37.1)

73 (62.9)

116 (36.7)

B. Nutrition

Availability of animal-source food

0.022*

2.45

(1.51–6.43)

0.017*

2.98

(1.51–3.82)

0.039*

2.12

(1.14–4.62)

Yes

148 (72.5)

204 (83.6)

6 (16.7)

30 (83.3)

36 (50.0)

62 (25.8)

178 (74.2)

240 (75.9)

No

24

(60.0)

40 (16.4)

16 (44.4)

20 (55.6)

36 (50.0)

32 (42.1)

44 (57.9)

76 (24.1)

Early Initiation of Breastfeeding

0.044*

1.76

(1.63–4.58)

0.012*

3.42

(1.66–4.94)

0.049*

1.98

(1.49–5.25)

Yes

104 (75.4)

138 (56.6)

7 (19.4)

29 (80.6)

36 (50.0)

41 (23.6)

133 (76.4)

174 (55.1)

No

68

(64.1)

106 (43.4)

15 (41.7)

21 (58.3)

36 (50.0)

53 (37.3)

89 (69.7)

142 (44.9)

Exclusive Breastfeeding

0.039*

1.99

(1.49–5.71)

0.154

0.78

(0.63–2.72)

0.042*

1.85

(1.15–4.67)

Yes

68

(79.1)

86 (35.2)

6 (24.0)

19 (76.0)

25 (34.7)

24 (21.6)

87 (78.4)

111 (35.1)

No

104 (65.8)

158 (64.8)

16 (34.0)

31 (66.0)

47 (65.3)

70 (34.1)

135 (65.9)

205 (64.9)

Complementary feeding

0.033*

2.25

(1.47–4.90)

0.029*

2.47

(1.11–4.70)

0.041*

2.17

(1.38–5.15)

>6 months

65 (78.3)

83 (34.0)

7 (25.0)

21 (75.0)

28 (38.9)

25 (22.5)

86 (77.5)

111 (35.1)

≤6 months

107 (66.5)

161 (66.0)

15 (34.1)

29 (65.9)

44 (61.1)

69 (33.7)

136 (66.3)

205 (64.9)

Frequency consumption of protein source

0.041*

2.16

(1.61–3.19)

0.035*

2.14

(1.37–3.44)

0.048*

2.20

(1.43–4.66)

High (≥ 3x/day)

145 (74.0)

196 (80.3)

6 (14.3)

36 (85.7)

42 (58.3)

57 (23.9)

181 (76.1)

238 (75.3)

Low (< 3x/day)

27 (56.3)

48 (19.7)

16 (53.3)

14 (46.7)

30 (41.7)

37 (47.4)

41 (52.6)

78 (24.7)

Frequency consumption of carbohydrate sources

0.264

0.56

(0.82–3.43)

0.470

0.68

(0.53–2.65)

0.182

0.57

(0.27–1.20)

High (≥ 3x/day)

147 (71.7)

205 (84.0)

13 (28.3)

33 (71.7)

46 (64.0)

71 (28.3)

180 (71.7)

251 (79.4)

Low (< 3x/day)

25 (64.0)

39 (16.0)

9 (34.6)

17 (65.4)

26 (36.0)

23 (35.4)

42 (64.6)

65 (20.6)

Balanced diet practices for children

0.018*

2.14

(1.17–5.40)

0.049*

1.96

(1.68–6.81)

0.047*

2.02

(1.29–4.71)

Yes

115 (76.7)

150 (61.5)

7 (25.0)

21 (75.0)

28 (38.9)

42 (23.6)

136 (76.4)

178 (56.3)

No

57

(60.7)

94 (38.5)

15 (34.0)

29 (66.0)

44 (61.1)

52 (37.7)

86 (62.3)

138 (43.7)

Vitamin A supplementation

0.038*

2.04

(1.63–6.47)

0.042*

1.87

(1.25–4.11)

0.052

1.76

(1.53–5.18)

Yes

151 (71.9)

210 (86.1)

10 (23.3)

33 (76.7)

43 (59.7)

69 (27.3)

184 (72.7)

253 (80.1)

No

21 (61.8)

34 (13.9)

12 (41.4)

17 (58.6)

29 (40.3)

25 (39.7)

38 (60.3)

63 (19.9)

C. Personal Hygiene and Sanitation

The habit of hand washing with soap

0.018*

2.32

(1.36–4.98)

0.043*

0.87

(0.14–0.98)

0.045*

2.19

(1.38–4.23)

Yes

140 (72.9)

192 (78.7)

12 (26.1)

34 (73.9)

46 (63.9)

64 (26.9)

174 (73.1)

238 (75.3)

No

32 (61.5)

52 (21.3)

10 (38.5)

16 (61.5)

26 (36.1)

30 (38.5)

48 (61.5)

78 (24.7)

Building Materials Are Not Easily Grown by Fungus

0.614

0.12

(0.84–4.13)

0.478

0.64

(0.44–1.92)

0.548

0.73

(0.87–3.51)

Yes

102 (68.9)

148 (60.7)

10 (25.6)

29 (74.4)

39 (54.2)

56 (29.9)

131 (70.1)

187 (59.2)

No

70 (72.9)

96 (39.3)

12 (36.4)

21 (63.6)

33 (45.8)

38 (29.5)

91 (70.5)

129 (40.8)

Easy-to-Clean Walls

0.477

1.24

(0.64–4.69)

0.341

1.21

(0.65–2.42)

0.512

1.16

(0.57–2.09)

Yes

113 (71.5)

158 (64.8)

15 (32.6)

31 (67.4)

46 (63.9)

60 (29.4)

144 (70.6)

204 (64.6)

No

59 (68.6)

86 (35.2)

7 (26.9)

19 (73.1)

26 (36.1)

34 (30.4)

78 (89.6)

112 (35.4)

Availability of complete room functions in the house

0.033*

2.5

(1.67–3.88)

0.092

1.14

(0.76–1.55)

0.048*

1.91

(1.42–4.16)

Yes

128 (73.6)

174 (71.3)

11 (25.6)

32 (74.4)

43 (59.7)

57 (26.3)

160 (73.7)

217 (68.7)

No

44 (62.9)

70 (28.7)

11 (37.9)

18 (62.1)

29 (40.3)

37 (37.3)

62 (62.7)

99 (31.3)

There are no animals that transmit diseases.

0.049*

1.99

(1.27–6.43)

0.036*

2.10

(1.54–4.89)

0.044*

1.86

(1.47–5.63)

Yes

111 (72.1)

154 (63.1)

9 (26.5)

25 (73.5)

34 (47.2)

52 (27.7)

136 (72.3)

188 (59.5)

No

61 (67.8)

90 (36.9)

13 (34.2)

25 (65.8)

38 (52.8)

42 (32.8)

86 (67.2)

128 (40.5)

Availability of Adequate Ventilation

0.031*

1.87

(1.52–4.17)

0.272

1.19

(0.39–1.80)

0.331

1.54

(0.89–1.47)

Yes

126 (75.4)

167 (68.4)

10 (25.6)

29 (74.4)

39 (54.2)

51 (24.8)

155 (75.2)

206 (65.2)

No

46 (59.7)

77 (31.6)

12 (36.4)

21 (63.6)

33 (45.8)

43 (39.1)

67 (60.9)

110 (34.8)

Good household waste processing

0.047*

1.88

(1.43–3.69)

0.082

1.46

(0.96–5.84)

0.049*

1.74

(1.07–4.56)

Yes

135 (73.4)

184 (75.4)

9 (24.3)

28 (75.7)

37 (51.4)

58 (26.2)

163 (73.8)

221 (69.9)

No

37 (61.7)

60 (24.6)

13 (37.1)

22 (62.9)

35 (48.6)

36 (37.9)

59 (62.1)

95 (30.1)

Clean water is available for drinking according to the number of family members.

0.044*

1.95

(1.24–2.73

0.038*

1.99

(1.78–6.41)

0.041*

1.92

(1.19–4.66)

Yes

139 (72.8)

191 (78.3)

13 (27.1)

35 (72.9)

48 (66.7)

65 (27.2)

174 (72.8)

239 (75.6)

No

33 (62.3)

53 (21.7)

9 (37.5)

15 (62.5)

24 (33.3)

29 (37.7)

48 (62.3)

77 (24.4)

Availability of safe food storage

0.039*

2.11

(1.54–2.78)

0.014*

2.87

(1.77–4.06)

0.045*

2.08

(1.35–4.18)

Yes

126 (74.1)

170 (69.7)

10 (26.3)

28 (73.7)

38 (52.8)

54 (26.0)

154 (74.0)

208 (65.8)

No

46 (62.2)

74 (30.3)

12 (35.3)

22 (64.7)

34 (47.2)

40 (37.0)

68 (63.0)

108 (34.2)